Back
to Basics
by
Vern Gambetta
Personally having coached athletes from twelve years of age on
up to the elite level I am very concerned about the number who leave
athletics and sports in general because a poor learning environment,
unrealistic expectations placed upon them, too much intense competition
beginning at an early age. Getting the beginner off to the best
possible start is the most important job in athletics. The emphasis
must be multi-faceted emphasizing psychological considerations,
competition, talent identification, training, and proper coaching/teaching.
The athlete should be a main focus of a national development scheme
and a major emphasis of any national coaching scheme.
The first experience in sport for the beginning athlete is the
most important. Therefore, this experience should emphasize the
basics to provide a sound foundation for further progress and development.
This experience will serve to maintain interest, raise motivation
and serve to promote adult participation in athletics either as
a participant, coach, parent of an athlete or informed spectator.
Psychological
Considerations
Fundamental to all other considerations with the beginner are those
dealing with psychological issues. The most basic is the issue of
providing an experience that is positive and will enhance self esteem.
Without a well developed self image the athlete will have a difficult
time handling success or failure and will not react favorably to
correction or criticism.
Emphasis on the intrinsic reward of participation, rather than
competing for medals, records, trophies etc. is the most sound method
of enhancing self esteem. Extrinsic rewards can give a distorted
sense of self-worth and focus attention away from performance. Often,
the emphasis placed on extrinsic rewards results in an unhealthy
emphasis on winning and records at a young age.
Establishing a system of intrinsic rewards requires much work on
the part of the coach/teacher. Much of this work should be directed
toward guiding the young athlete toward realistic goals (expectations).
It is preferable that these goals be process goals that are appropriate
to the age and skill development level of the athlete. For example
"hitting the board," "finishing the race," "six fair throws," etc.
As success is achieved the young athlete will have to deal with
increasing pressure. Consequently it is important to educate the
youngster from the beginning what pressure is and how to cope. Most
often pressure is the expectations placed on an athlete by others,
in most cases the parents and/or the coach. It is important that
these people be aware of the effect their expectations can have
on the young beginner. It relates to what was said earlier concerning
the intrinsic rewards, encouraging the athlete to participate for
the joy of movement and letting the extrinsic rewards come as they
may as a by-product of the experience.
Competition
The biggest danger for the beginner is too much formal competition,
too soon. Competition for the beginner should consist of informal
"playdays" of relay races, jumping and hopping games, throwing contests
for distance and accuracy, small sided games. The more variety the
better in order to accommodate the short attention spans, different
interests, and competencies. This is also true of the training at
this age. The challenge here is for each child to strive to better
their performance measured against their previous best. They must
experience success in order to feel comfortable and to maintain
motivation.
Competition will assume more of a role as skill and conditioning
advance. When the young athlete reaches this stage, competition
can be feedback to measure progress as well as to test limits. The
ratio of training to competition should still remain high, somewhere
in the range of three or four to one. A cautionary note must be
mentioned: success in competition at age group competition is not
a guarantee for results at the national and international levels.
In fact it is this author's opinion that early success has little
or no relationship to later success.
It will be interesting to observe the long term progress of the
young performers from the Junior World Championships and see if
this high level competition at a relatively young age accelerates
or retards development. Competition in itself is not negative, but
it becomes a negative when too much importance is placed upon it
and the outcome.
Talent
Identification And Development
The fundamental assumption is that if the talent is identified
early, nurtured, and developed to it's fullest extent those athletes
will continue on to the highest levels of competition. The issue
is one of nature versus nurture. If a large, healthy, population
base is available then a "Darwinian" process of competition, letting
the strong survive, might be acceptable. This system worked well
for the U.S. until other nations began a systematic approach to
the nurture of the young athlete. The contrast between the two
methods was readily apparent in recent Olympic games, particularly
in events where a high level of skill development is necessary.
The very successful model utilized by the GDR is good example of
a gradual progression that continually strives to select and match
the young athlete to an event or sport that is suited to their body
type and abilities. Their system was closely tied to their educational
system through mandatory physical education taught by highly trained
specialists. Their philosophy was that training must progress over
a six to ten year period to achieve top results. Through a planned
progression ultimate success will come in the adult years.
It is unrealistic to expect progress at the same rate and level
for all children. A danger of early identification of talent
is a narrowing of skills through early tracking. This can easily
occur if the initial identification of talent is based on a dominant
physical characteristic biased by accelerated growth and maturation.
Specialization should be discouraged and general development stressed
as a basis for later improvement.
Training
The fundamental goal is: 1) to enhance development of the mechanism
of force production and force reduction 2) develop motor control.
To achieve this at the beginning stages it is necessary to stress
fundamental conditioning encompassing the basic biomotor abilities
of speed, strength, endurance coordination, and mobility/flexibility.
Remember, children are not miniature adults therefore the biomotor
abilities must be developed in a manner appropriate to maturation
level and stage of development The more a play element is introduced
utilizing natural terrain and obstacles the more interest will be
stimulated and the more progress shown. Also the use of natural
terrain and obstacles makes equipment and facilities less of a limitation.
The critical years for motor learning are the so called "Skill
Hungry" years from three to nine. This is when sound fundamental
motor skills should be taught to establish basic technical models
to provide a foundation for more specialized skills that will follow
at an older age. "Optimum motor learning develops in children
when skills are taught at the right time (maturation-readiness)
and in the proper manner (experience-practices)" [Piscopo &
Baly p.152]. Big muscle skills should precede fine motor skills.
Strength and endurance will increase with growth and maturity. Motor
skill and the learning process relate more to maturity than any
other single variable.
Effective training for the beginner should encompass all of the
following: 1) proper conditioning 2) good competent coaching 3)
grouping according to skill, body size, and physical maturation
(Chronological age is the least accurate means of assessing maturation),
4) safe equipment and 5) rules and equipment modified to meet the
physical limitations and skills.
The periods of sports participation model outlined by Brook is
an excellent guide to determine the direction and content of the
training process as progression is made through the stages of development.
I have adapted this model to include psychological objectives for
each stage as well as competition objectives.
Perhaps the most profound influence on the beginner is that of
the first coach/teacher who provides the introduction to athletics.
This person should be the best teacher available because this is
the person who will teach the basics of conditioning, technique,
self image, goal setting, and competitive attitude. Unfortunately
in many situations this is not the case. The coach for the beginner
is too often the least prepared and competent in terms of coaching
/teaching ability. The prevalent thought is that working with these
beginning athletes is less prestigious. It is felt to be less demanding,
requiring fewer teaching skills and less knowledge. The opposite
is the case. Working at this level is very demanding and the enthusiasm
and joy of learning is most rewarding.
Foundation
Period
- Begins in a range from nine to eleven years.
- Three to four years in duration.
- Games and fun activities, wide variety designed to enhance self-image.
- General training, speed development, skill development.
- Develop body weight strength, mobility, and aerobic endurance.
- Develop basic skills and rhythm.
- One training session per week increasing to three per week.
- Competition should be limited and confined to playful situations.
Developmental
Period
- Begins in a range from thirteen to fourteen years.
- Four to six years in duration.
- Emphasize general training in the first years.
- Percentage of specific training should increase gradually over
the last two years.
- Develop appropriate training and competition behavior.
- Begin goal setting appropriate to level of development.
- Teach weight training techniques with 60% maximum loading.
- Three training sessions per week increasing to six in later
years.
- Undertake more formal competition increasing in difficulty as
the athlete advances through the developmental period.
Period
Of Mature Participation
- Begins in a range from seventeen to twenty two years.
- Not before seventeen or after twenty two.
- Percentage of specific training increases.
- The time spent in training increases significantly, especially
for the elite athlete.
- Frequency and difficulty increases significantly.
References
1) Piscopo, J., and Baley, J.A., Kinesiology-The
Science Of Movement, New York, John Wiley
& Sons, 1981, P.152.
2) Wilmore, J.H., Training For Sport And Activity-The Physiological
Basis Of The Conditioning Process, Second
Edition, Boston, Allyn And Bacon, Inc., 1982, PP. 219-229.
3) Bales, J., "Lessons from the GDR," Coaching
Review, Sept/Oct 1986. PP.30-32.
4) Brook, N.D., "Conditioning and the Growing Athlete," Athletics
Coach, Vol 19 #4, Dec 1985, PP. 31-35.
4) Pangrazi, B., N. Chomokos, D. Massoney, "From Theory To Practice:
A Summary," Motor Development: Theory Into Practice,
Monograph 3, 1981. PP. 65-71.
5) Smith, S., "Talent Identification And Development," Track
Technique Annual '81, Vern Gambetta,
Editor, PP. 41-45.
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